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Abstract To understand how behaviors arise in animals, it is necessary to investigate both the neural circuits and the biomechanics of the periphery. A tractable model system for studying multifunctional control is the feeding apparatus of the marine molluskAplysia californica. Previousin silicoandin robotomodels have investigated how the nervous and muscular systems interact in this system. However, these models are still limited in their ability to matchin vivodata both qualitatively and quantitatively. We introduce a new neuromechanical model ofAplysiafeeding that combines a modified version of a previously developed neural model with a novel biomechanical model that better reflects the anatomy and kinematics ofAplysiafeeding. The model was calibrated using a combination of previously measured biomechanical parameters and hand-tuning to behavioral data. Using this model, simulated feeding experiments were conducted, and the resulting behavioral metrics were compared to animal data. The model successfully produces three key behaviors seen inAplysiaand demonstrates a good quantitative agreement with biting and swallowing behaviors. Additional work is needed to match rejection behavior quantitatively and to reflect qualitative observations related to the relative contributions of two key muscles, the hinge and I3. Future improvements will focus on incorporating the effects of deformable 3D structures in the simulated buccal mass. 

The industrial revolution of the 19th century marked the onset of an era of machines and robots that transformed societies. Since the beginning of the 21st century, a new generation of robots envisions similar societal transformation. These robots are biohybrid: part living and part engineered. They may self-assemble and emerge from complex interactions between living cells. While this new era of living robots presents unprecedented opportunities for positive societal impact, it also poses a host of ethical challenges. A systematic, nuanced examination of these ethical issues is of paramount importance to guide the evolution of this nascent field. Multidisciplinary fields face the challenge that inertia around collective action to address ethical boundaries may result in unexpected consequences for researchers and societies alike. In this Perspective, we i) clarify the ethical challenges associated with biohybrid robotics, ii) discuss the need for and elements of a potential governance framework tailored to this technology; and iii) propose tangible steps toward ethical compliance and policy formation in the field of biohybrid robotics.